in reply to Why do people say 'Perl' is dead?!?!
Why do you care "What people say"?
Does that affect how much jobs pay?
Some like to code in triplicate: String newString = (new StringBuffer(aString)).append(anInt).toString();
Whilst others prefer to masticate: char *newString = strcat( aString, sprintf( malloc( 6 ), "%6d", anInt ) ); (**)
For some, every step is very hard won: (*)
Perlers just like to get the job done: my $newString = $aString . $anInt;
Fashions, as we all know, have a tendancy to come and go.
But functionally, we wear clothes to keep warm.
A dried meat dress, will never suppress
the utility of jeans. Even if they're torn.
So decide for yourself, what's important to you.
Being part of the crowd who cry "Perl's dead!" aloud.
Or one of the thousands that, every day,
get the job done using Perl. Their way.
(*)Hard won:
A basic technique is to use newtype declarations to declare separate types for separate intents. <code> module StringSafety ( SafeString () , UnsafeString () , quote , considerUnsafe ) where newtype SafeString = SafeString String newtype UnsafeString = UnsafeString String considerUnsafe :: String -> UnsafeString considerUnsafe s = UnsafeString s quote :: UnsafeString -> SafeString quote (UnsafeString s) = SafeString s' where s' = ... s ... This module does not export the SafeString and UnsafeString constructors, so we can be sure that no other code in the program can invent SafeStrings which are not really safe. Every string can be safe +ly treated as unsafe, however, so we export a function considerUnsafe whi +ch does so. Now, if we type our interface to the outside world as <code> getInput :: ... -> UnsafeString sendOutput :: SafeString -> ... we can be sure that a return value from getInput needs to pass through + quote on its way to sendOutput, because quote is the only way to produ +ce a SafeString. This guarantuees safety. It has, however, a practical problem: We can' +t use the usual String functions on UnsafeString or SafeString values. F +or instance, we can't concatenate two UnsafeStrings using (++). A naive solution would be to provide separate (++) functions for unsaf +e and safe strings: <code> append_safe :: SafeString -> SafeString -> SafeString append_safe (SafeString x) (SafeString y) = SafeString (x ++ y) append_unsafe :: SafeString -> SafeString -> SafeString append_unsafe (UnsafeString x) (UnsafeString y) = UnsafeString (x ++ y) Note that at least append_safe needs to be implemented in and exported + from the StringSafety module. That is a good thing, because this function needs to be carefully checked for safety. The programmer need +s to prove (or unit-test, or at least think about) the following theorem +: <code> If a and b are safe strings, so is a ++ b. After this fact has been established, other modules are free to use append_safe however they like without possibly compromising safety. <p>Now, the above approach should work, but is still rather impractica +l: We need to copy the definitions of all String functions for unsafe and sa +fe strings. However, since the bodies of all these copies are actually identical, so we can use parametric polymorphism to abstract over the difference between UnsafeString and SafeString. One way to achieve thi +s is to use phantom types. <p>With phantom types, we declare only a single newtype for both safe +and unsafe strings, but we annotate that type with an additional flag to distinguish safe from unsafe uses. <code> module StringSafety ( AnnotatedString () , Safe () , Unsafe () , quote , considerUnsafe , append ) where data Safe = Safe data Unsafe = Unsafe newtype AnnotatedString safety = AnnotatedString String considerUnsafe :: String -> AnnotatedString Unsafe considerUnsafe s = AnnotatedString s quote :: AnnotatedString Unsafe -> AnnotatedString Safe quote (AnnotatedString s) = AnnotatedString s' where s' = ... s ... append :: AnnotatedString a -> AnnotatedString a -> AnnotatedString a append (AnnotatedString x) (AnnotatedString y) = AnnotatedString (x ++ y)
Note that AnnotatedString does not really use its type parameter safety:
That's why it is called a phantom type. The data constructor AnnotatedString can be freely used to convert between safe and unsafe strings, so we better not export it from the module. Inside the module, uses of the data constructor gives rise to proof obligations as above. So the programmer needs to reason that the following is true to justify the implementation and export of append:
If x and y have the same safety level, then (x ++ y) has again that same safety level.
So now, we still have to write a wrapper around each string operation, but at least we need to write only one such wrapper for all intents, not a separate wrapper for each intent.
There is an inconvenience left: We can't concatenate safe and unsafe strings, because both arguments to append need to have exactly the same type. To fix this, we first have to figure out what the result of sucha concatenation would be: It would be an unsafe string, because at least one of the inputs is unsafe. We need to teach this kind of reasoning to the compiler, for instance, using type families:
type family Join a b type instance Join Safe Safe = Safe type instance Join Safe Unsafe = Unsafe type instance Join Unsafe Safe = Unsafe type instance Join Unsafe Unsafe = Unsafe
The idea is that (Join a b) is the safety level of the result of an operation which consumes data of safety level a and b. I called the type family Join because the safety levels form a lattice, with unsafe levels higher then safe levels, and the type family computes the join operation for that lattice. So we are encoding a simple static analysis into the type system here!
Using this lattice structure of safety level, we can give a more polymorphic type to append:
append :: AnnotatedString a -> AnnotatedString b -> AnnotatedString (Join a b)
The implementation can remain unchanged. Now, the programmer needs to reason that the following statement is true to justify this type of append:
(x ++ y) is at least as safe as the least safe of x and y.
So to conclude, statically checked intent-typing can be expressed in Haskell using newtype wrappers with phantom types, and possibly some type-level computation on these phantom types to teach the compiler domain knowledge about the intents.
(**)Bugs intentional!
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